Talcott Parsons
Talcott Parsons, a key figure in American sociology, had a fascinating journey into the discipline. Born on December 13, 1902, in Colorado Springs, Colorado, Parsons was the son of a Congregational minister, Edward Smith Parsons, who was also a professor of English and Vice President of Colorado College. His mother, Mary Augusta Ingersoll Parsons, came from a prominent New England family. The intellectual environment of his household, combined with his father’s strong influence, set the stage for Parsons’ academic inclinations.
Early Life and Education
Parsons initially pursued a career in biology, earning his Bachelor’s degree in biology and philosophy from Amherst College in 1924. His interest in biology reflected the influence of his early education and the scientific spirit of the time. However, it was during his time at Amherst that he was introduced to the works of sociologist Max Weber, particularly Weber’s ideas on the role of values and culture in social life. This marked a turning point in his intellectual journey.
Path to Sociology
After graduating, Parsons went to Europe, where he studied at the London School of Economics and later at the University of Heidelberg in Germany. It was in Heidelberg that he encountered the works of German sociologists and philosophers, including the writings of Max Weber. Parsons was particularly influenced by Weber’s analysis of the Protestant Ethic and the spirit of capitalism. His engagement with Weber’s work, along with his exposure to the German intellectual tradition, deeply shaped his understanding of society and led him to shift from biology to sociology.
Interesting Stories and Influences
One interesting story about Parsons is his relationship with his dissertation advisor, Alfred Weber, Max Weber’s younger brother. Although Alfred Weber was less influential than his brother, the mentorship still connected Parsons directly to the Weberian tradition, which would later become central to his own work.
Another key moment in Parsons’ early career was his marriage to Helen Bancroft Walker, a psychologist. This relationship further broadened his intellectual horizons, and Helen’s influence helped Parsons appreciate the significance of psychological factors in social behavior, which became a component of his later work in social systems theory.
Entry into Sociology
Parsons officially entered the field of sociology when he joined Harvard University in 1927 as an instructor in economics. Over time, his focus shifted entirely to sociology, and he became a key figure in establishing sociology as a distinct academic discipline in the United States. His translation of Weber’s “The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism” into English, along with his own writings, solidified his position in the field. By the late 1930s, Parsons had become a central figure in American sociology, particularly through his development of structural-functionalism, a theory that sought to explain how various institutions in society work together to maintain stability and social order.
Parsons’ journey from biology to sociology was marked by intellectual curiosity and a series of encounters with influential thinkers, ultimately leading him to become one of the most important sociologists of the 20th century.
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Talcott Parsons’ School of Thought and Theories
Talcott Parsons was one of the most influential sociologists of the 20th century, known for his development of structural functionalism and his theories of social action. His intellectual journey was shaped by his engagement with the works of earlier sociologists and philosophers, and his contributions have had a lasting impact on the field of sociology.
1. Structural Functionalism
Parsons is most renowned for developing structural functionalism, a theoretical framework that sees society as a complex system with various parts working together to maintain stability and social order. This perspective builds upon the earlier work of Émile Durkheim, who emphasized the importance of social solidarity and the role of institutions in maintaining the collective conscience of society.
Development of the Theory
Parsons’ structural functionalism was heavily influenced by Durkheim’s works such as “The Division of Labor in Society” (1893) and “Suicide” (1897). Durkheim’s idea that social facts must be studied as things, independent of individual actions, resonated with Parsons, who sought to understand how societal structures function independently of individual desires.
Moreover, Parsons drew from Max Weber’s analysis of social action, particularly Weber’s emphasis on the importance of values, norms, and the role of culture in shaping human behavior. Parsons’ “The Structure of Social Action” (1937) reflects this synthesis of Durkheim and Weber, as it attempts to construct a comprehensive theory of action that bridges the divide between individual agency and social structure.
Key Concepts in Structural Functionalism
– Social System: Parsons viewed society as a system composed of interrelated parts that work together. This concept was influenced by the organic analogy found in the works of Herbert Spencer, who likened society to a living organism with different parts performing functions necessary for survival.
– AGIL Scheme: Parsons introduced the AGIL framework in his book “The Social System” (1951), outlining four basic functions that all social systems must fulfill:
– Adaptation (A): Economic systems manage resources and adapt to the environment.
– Goal Attainment (G): Political systems define societal goals and mobilize resources to achieve them.
– Integration (I): Legal and normative systems ensure cohesion and regulate relations between the parts.
– Latency (L) (Pattern Maintenance): Cultural and educational systems sustain values, beliefs, and motivations across generations.
Example of Structural Functionalism
Consider the role of the family as discussed in Bronislaw Malinowski’s work on functionalism. The family not only nurtures and socializes children but also contributes to the stability of society by instilling norms and values. Similarly, Parsons viewed the family as a key institution within the social system that performs essential functions for societal stability, such as socialization and emotional support.
2. Theory of Social Action
Parsons’ theory of social action is foundational in understanding the relationship between individual behavior and the broader social system. He sought to explain how individual actions are shaped by social structures, norms, and values, building on the ideas of Weber, as well as Alfred Schutz, who emphasized the subjective meanings that individuals attach to their actions.
Development of the Theory
Parsons was deeply influenced by Weber’s work on the nature of social action, particularly Weber’s concepts of rationality and the importance of cultural values in shaping behavior. Weber’s “Economy and Society” (1922) provided a detailed analysis of how individuals act based on rational calculations as well as traditional and affective motivations. Parsons extended these ideas, arguing in “The Structure of Social Action” that actions are not merely responses to external stimuli but are also guided by a combination of personal motivations, societal expectations, and cultural norms.
Key Concepts in Social Action Theory
– Action System: Influenced by Weber and Vilfredo Pareto, Parsons described social action as behavior oriented toward others, driven by expectations and norms. This is seen in his discussion of the action system in “Toward a General Theory of Action” (1951), co-authored with Edward Shils.
– Voluntaristic Theory of Action: Parsons posited that individuals make choices based on a combination of personal goals and the influence of social structures. This idea was influenced by the voluntarism of William James and the pragmatism of George Herbert Mead.
– Four Action Systems:
– Behavioral Organism: Refers to biological drives and actions, similar to the instincts discussed by Sigmund Freud.
– Personality System: Represents the individual’s goals and motivations, echoing the psychoanalytic theories of Freud.
– Social System: Encompasses interactions and roles within society, similar to Durkheim’s concept of social facts.
– Cultural System: Involves shared values and norms, building on Weber’s ideas of value-rationality and the collective conscience described by Durkheim.
Example of Social Action Theory
A classic example of Parsons’ theory can be found in the decision-making process of a bureaucrat, as discussed in Weber’s work on bureaucracy. The bureaucrat’s actions are influenced by a combination of personal goals (e.g., career advancement), the rules of the organization (social system), and the cultural values of efficiency and rationality (cultural system). Parsons used similar reasoning to explain how individuals operate within different social contexts, balancing personal desires with societal expectations.
3. Pattern Variables
Parsons introduced pattern variables to categorize the different types of social action and relationships. These variables represent dichotomous choices that individuals face in social interactions, influenced by the context and expectations of their roles.
Key Pattern Variables
– Affectivity vs. Affective Neutrality: Whether an action is guided by emotions or by objective considerations, influenced by Weber’s distinction between affective and value-rational action.
– Self-Orientation vs. Collectivity-Orientation: Whether an action is directed toward personal interests or the interests of the group, drawing from Durkheim’s discussion of egoism and altruism in “The Division of Labor in Society.”
– Universalism vs. Particularism: Whether behavior is governed by universal norms or particular relationships, similar to Weber’s analysis of formal versus substantive rationality.
– Ascription vs. Achievement: Whether social status is based on inherent qualities (ascription) or accomplishments (achievement), paralleling the work of Ralph Linton on status and role differentiation.
– Specificity vs. Diffuseness: Whether social relationships are narrow and specific or broad and general, echoing Durkheim’s concepts of mechanical versus organic solidarity.
Example of Pattern Variables
In professional settings, Parsons argued that actions are typically governed by affective neutrality (objective decision-making) and universalism (adherence to general rules), similar to Weber’s ideal type of bureaucracy. Conversely, in family relationships, affectivity (emotional involvement) and particularism (special relationships) are more prevalent, reflecting the personal and emotional nature of familial bonds.
4. The Sick Role
In his analysis of health and illness, Parsons introduced the concept of the sick role within the structural functionalist framework. This concept describes the social expectations and responsibilities of individuals who are ill.
Development of the Theory
Parsons’ idea of the sick role was influenced by his work on social systems and the need for society to maintain stability even in the face of illness. The sick role, first discussed in “The Social System” (1951), is an application of structural functionalism to the domain of health and illness, where Parsons sought to explain how illness is managed within the social system.
Key Aspects of the Sick Role
– Exemption from Normal Social Roles: As in Durkheim’s analysis of deviance, the sick person is relieved from their usual responsibilities because their illness is seen as a legitimate deviation from normal behavior.
– Not Responsible for Condition: Echoing Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, Parsons argued that the individual is not held accountable for their illness, as it is viewed as beyond their control.
– Obligation to Get Well: The sick person is expected to seek treatment and attempt to recover, maintaining the stability of the social system.
– Obligation to Cooperate with Medical Professionals: The sick person must follow the advice of doctors, reflecting Weber’s notion of rational-legal authority.
Example of the Sick Role
In modern healthcare systems, a patient diagnosed with a serious illness is exempt from work and other social duties (exemption from normal social roles). They are expected to undergo treatment and comply with medical advice, similar to Weber’s discussion of the professionalization of medicine, where doctors exercise authority based on their expertise and the rational-legal framework within which they operate.
Talcott Parsons’ theories, particularly structural functionalism and the theory of social action, have been foundational in sociology. His work synthesizes and extends the ideas of earlier sociologists and philosophers, creating a comprehensive framework for understanding social systems, institutions, and individual actions. While some aspects of Parsons’ theories have been critiqued and revised, his contributions remain essential for students and scholars of sociology.
Parsons’ influence can be seen in numerous works that followed, such as Robert K. Merton’s development of the concepts of manifest and latent functions, and the application of structural functionalism to various fields, including health, education, and family studies.
Talcott Parsons made several significant statements that encapsulate his theoretical contributions to sociology. Here are some of his most famous quotes and statements that are often referenced in the study of his work:
1. On the Nature of Sociology:
– “The main feature of any complex society is the fact that it consists of a plurality of sub-units, which function according to different principles.”
– This quote highlights Parsons’ focus on the differentiation and specialization of societal institutions and their roles in maintaining social order.
2. On Social Systems:
– “A social system is a system of action which has the particular characteristic of being composed of a plurality of individual actors interacting with each other in a situation which has at least a physical or environmental aspect.”
– This statement underscores Parsons’ conceptualization of society as a complex system of interdependent parts.
3. On Structural Functionalism:
– The function of social structures is to maintain the stability and continuity of the society.”
– This quote succinctly encapsulates the core idea of structural functionalism, emphasizing the role of social structures in preserving societal equilibrium.
4. On the Theory of Social Action:
– “Action systems consist of the organized patterns of interactions between individual and collective actors, oriented to the attainment of goals within specific situations, guided by cultural norms and values.”
– This reflects Parsons’ theory of social action, where individual and collective actions are seen as guided by normative and cultural frameworks.
5. On Cultural Systems:
– “The cultural system is central to the functioning of society because it provides the values, norms, and symbols that guide action and interaction.”
– This statement highlights the importance of culture in Parsons’ theory, positioning it as a key component in the maintenance of social order.
6. On Societal Evolution:
– “Societies evolve by differentiation, whereby structures and roles become more specialized, creating more efficient and complex forms of social organization.”
– Here, Parsons discusses the concept of societal evolution, where increased specialization leads to more advanced social systems.
7. On AGIL Framework:
– “The four functional imperatives of any social system are adaptation, goal attainment, integration, and latency. These functions are essential for the survival and stability of a social system.”
– This quote refers to Parsons’ AGIL framework, which outlines the four basic functions that any social system must perform to survive and maintain stability.
8. On Modernization:
– “Modernization is the process by which societies move from traditional forms of social organization towards those characteristic of industrialized societies.”
– Parsons often linked social evolution and modernization, highlighting how societies transition from traditional to modern through differentiation and integration.
Critics
1. C. Wright Mills (Conflict Theory)
C. Wright Mills was one of the most vocal critics of Parsons. In his book “The Sociological Imagination” (1959), Mills argued that Parsons’ theories were overly abstract and disconnected from the real social issues facing individuals.
2. Ralf Dahrendorf (Conflict Theory)
Ralf Dahrendorf criticized Parsons for his emphasis on social order and consensus, arguing that Parsons ignored the inherent conflicts and power struggles present in society.
3. Robert K. Merton (Functionalism, with Modifications)
Robert K. Merton, although initially a supporter of structural functionalism, introduced important modifications to Parsons’ ideas.
4. Jürgen Habermas (Critical Theory)
Jürgen Habermas critiqued Parsons’ theory of social action for its lack of attention to communication and the role of consensus-building in social systems.
5. Herbert Marcuse (Critical Theory, Marxism)
Herbert Marcuse, a critical theorist associated with the Frankfurt School, critiqued Parsons for reinforcing the status quo and for his perceived conservatism.
6. Anthony Giddens (Structuration Theory)
Anthony Giddens offered a critique of Parsons through his theory of structuration, which sought to reconcile the tension between structure and agency.
7. Alvin Gouldner (Conflict Theory, Critical Sociology)
Alvin Gouldner criticized Parsons for his perceived ideological biases and for being out of touch with social realities.
8. Harold Garfinkel (Ethnomethodology)
Harold Garfinkel, the founder of ethnomethodology, critiqued Parsons’ theories from a micro-sociological perspective.
9. Randall Collins (Conflict Theory)
Randall Collins offered a conflict theory perspective that critiqued Parsons’ focus on consensus.
This list should now provide a clearer picture of each critic’s theoretical perspective in relation to Parsons’ work.
Appreciate
Here’s a list of sociologists who have praised, followed, and even further developed and modified Talcott Parsons’ theories, along with their respective schools of thought:
1. Robert K. Merton (Structural Functionalism, with Modifications)
Robert K. Merton is one of the most notable followers of Parsons. He extended Parsons’ work by introducing the concepts of manifest and latent functions in his essay “Manifest and Latent Functions” (1949). Merton also introduced the idea of middle-range theories, which are less abstract and more directly connected to empirical research, bridging the gap between grand theories and empirical data. His work on anomie and the strain theory of deviance also expanded the functionalist perspective to include the ways in which social structures can produce strain and deviance.
2. Niklas Luhmann (Systems Theory)
Niklas Luhmann was a German sociologist who expanded on Parsons’ structural functionalism by developing systems theory. Luhmann took Parsons’ idea of social systems further, focusing on how these systems are self-referential and operate through communication. His work, particularly in “Social Systems” (1984), emphasized the complexity of modern societies and the role of subsystems (such as the economy, law, and politics) in maintaining social order.
3. Jeffrey Alexander (Neo-Functionalism)
Jeffrey Alexander is a leading figure in neo-functionalism, which seeks to revive and reformulate Parsons’ ideas for contemporary sociology. In works like “Neo-Functionalism” (1985), Alexander argued that Parsons’ framework could be updated to address critiques by integrating more dynamic aspects of agency, culture, and conflict. He also emphasized the importance of culture in social life, incorporating ideas from symbolic interactionism and cultural sociology.
4. Talcott Parsons Himself (Structural Functionalism)
It is important to note that Talcott Parsons himself revisited and refined his theories over time, particularly in response to criticism. In his later works, including “The System of Modern Societies” (1971), Parsons addressed the issues of social change and the evolution of societies, focusing more on the interplay between different subsystems, such as the economy, polity, and culture.
5. Edward Shils (Structural Functionalism, Cultural Sociology)
Edward Shils was a close collaborator with Parsons and played a significant role in the development of Parsons’ theories. Shils co-authored “Toward a General Theory of Action” (1951) with Parsons, where they expanded on the theory of social action. Shils contributed significantly to the understanding of the role of tradition, charisma, and culture in social systems, thus integrating cultural sociology into functionalism.
6. David Lockwood (Neo-Functionalism)
David Lockwood contributed to the neo-functionalist revival by introducing the concept of social integration and system integration in his essay “Social Integration and System Integration” (1964). Lockwood’s work helped to address some of the gaps in Parsons’ original framework by focusing on how individual and systemic levels of society interact, particularly in the context of social order and conflict.
7. Kingsley Davis and Wilbert E. Moore (Structural Functionalism)
Kingsley Davis and Wilbert E. Moore are known for their work on the functional theory of stratification, which builds on Parsons’ ideas. In their seminal article “Some Principles of Stratification” (1945), they argued that social stratification is a universal necessity for ensuring that the most important positions in society are filled by the most qualified individuals. This theory aligned with Parsons’ emphasis on the functional role of social structures in maintaining social order, though it has also been subject to critique.
8. Rene König (Structural Functionalism)
Rene König was a German sociologist who helped introduce Parsons’ work to Europe and provided a nuanced understanding of Parsons’ theories in the context of European sociology. He contributed to the popularization and further development of structural functionalism in Germany and engaged with the tensions between traditional European sociology and Parsons’ ideas.
9. Marion J. Levy (Structural Functionalism, Developmental Sociology)
Marion J. Levy was a student of Parsons who applied structural functionalism to the study of development and modernization. In his work “The Structure of Society” (1952), Levy expanded on Parsons’ ideas by focusing on the developmental aspects of societies, particularly in the context of modernization and social change.
10. Smelser and Lipset (Structural Functionalism, Political Sociology)
Neil Smelser and Seymour Martin Lipset were scholars who applied Parsons’ theories to the study of political sociology and economic development. Smelser’s work on the sociology of economic life and collective behavior, such as in “Theory of Collective Behavior” (1962), extended Parsons’ framework to understand the dynamics of social movements and economic development.
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These sociologists not only followed Parsons but also modified and extended his ideas, making significant contributions to sociology through their work in structural functionalism, neo-functionalism, systems theory, and beyond.
Indian Sociologists Who Criticized Parsons:
1. Yogendra Singh (Sociology of Change and Development)
Yogendra Singh was a prominent Indian sociologist who critiqued the applicability of Parsons’ structural functionalism to the Indian context. In his work “Modernization of Indian Tradition” (1973), Singh argued that Parsons’ emphasis on social order and stability overlooked the complexities and conflicts inherent in the processes of social change in India, particularly the tension between tradition and modernity. Singh highlighted that Indian society, with its deep-rooted diversity and stratification, required a more nuanced approach than what Parsons’ theories could offer.
2. D.P. Mukerji (Marxist Sociology, Cultural Sociology)
D.P. Mukerji critiqued the Western-centric nature of Parsons’ theories, emphasizing the importance of understanding the specific historical and cultural context of Indian society. Mukerji’s work, which focused on the relationship between tradition and change, particularly in the context of colonialism and post-colonial development, argued that Parsons’ functionalism was inadequate for analyzing the dynamics of Indian society. Mukerji’s Marxist leanings led him to focus more on issues of class, power, and conflict, which he felt were underemphasized in Parsons’ work.
Indian Sociologists Who Praised or Integrated Parsons’ Work:
1. M.N. Srinivas (Structural Functionalism, Cultural Sociology)
M.N. Srinivas was one of the most renowned Indian sociologists who engaged with Parsons’ work, particularly in his analysis of caste and social structure in India. In his study of the caste system and concepts like Sanskritization and dominant caste, Srinivas applied aspects of structural functionalism to understand how different parts of Indian society function to maintain stability and continuity. While he did not uncritically adopt Parsons’ framework, Srinivas appreciated its utility in analyzing social structures and institutions within the Indian context.
2. T.K. Oommen (Structural Functionalism, Sociology of Development)
T.K. Oommen has drawn upon Parsons’ framework, particularly in his studies of social stratification and modernization in India. Oommen’s work often integrates structural functionalist perspectives to understand the complexities of social change in India, particularly in the context of development, nationalism, and ethnic identities. He has expanded on Parsons’ ideas by applying them to the diverse and multifaceted social realities of India.
3. Andre Béteille (Structural Functionalism, Social Stratification)
Andre Béteille is another prominent Indian sociologist who has engaged with Parsons’ ideas, particularly in his studies on inequality and social stratification. Béteille’s work, such as “Caste, Class, and Power” (1965), while rooted in an empirical study of Indian society, utilizes structural functionalist concepts to analyze the interplay between different social institutions. He has been critical of certain aspects of Parsons’ theories, particularly their applicability to Indian society, but nonetheless found them valuable for understanding social order and stability in the Indian context.
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Notable publications and books by Talcott Parsons
1. “The Structure of Social Action” (1937)
– In this seminal work, Parsons introduces his theoretical framework by analyzing the works of key social theorists such as Max Weber, Émile Durkheim, and Vilfredo Pareto. He aims to develop a unified theory of social action that incorporates elements from these theorists to create a comprehensive model of social behavior and institutions.
2. “Toward a General Theory of Action” (1951)
– Co-authored with Edward Shils, this book extends Parsons’ earlier work by presenting a detailed theoretical framework for understanding social action. It introduces key concepts such as the pattern variables and explores how individuals’ actions are shaped by cultural and social norms within different contexts.
3. “The Social System” (1951)
– In this work, Parsons further develops his theory of structural functionalism by outlining how social systems maintain stability and cohesion. He introduces the AGIL framework, which identifies four functional imperatives (Adaptation, Goal Attainment, Integration, and Latency) that are essential for the survival of any social system.
4. “The System of Modern Societies” (1971)
– This book presents Parsons’ updated theory of social systems, focusing on the evolution of modern societies. Parsons explores the complex interactions between different societal subsystems (such as the economy, polity, and culture) and how they contribute to the stability and development of modern societies.
5. “Essays in Sociological Theory” (1954)
– This collection of Parsons’ essays provides a comprehensive overview of his theoretical contributions to sociology. The essays cover various topics, including social action, the function of norms, and the relationship between social structures and cultural systems.
6. “The Sociology of Religion” (1964)
– In this book, Parsons examines the role of religion in maintaining social order and its functional significance within societies. He analyzes how religious institutions contribute to social cohesion and the integration of individuals into the social system.
7. “Family, Socialization, and Interaction Process” (1955)
– Co-authored with Robert Bales, this book explores the role of the family in the socialization process. It examines how family interactions influence individual development and the transmission of cultural values across generations.
8. “Social Structure and Personality” (1958)
– This work focuses on the relationship between social structures and individual personalities. Parsons examines how societal expectations and roles shape personal behavior and identity, contributing to the broader social system.
These works collectively represent Parsons’ major contributions to sociology, including his development of structural functionalism, his exploration of social systems, and his analysis of the interplay between individual actions and societal structures.
MCQs on Talcott Parsons:
1. Which of the following is NOT one of the four functional imperatives in Parsons’ AGIL framework?
A) Adaptation
B) Goal Attainment
C) Integration
D) Equity
2. In which book did Talcott Parsons introduce his concept of the ‘social system’?
A) The Social System
B) The Structure of Social Action
C) Toward a General Theory of Action
D) The System of Modern Societies
3. Talcott Parsons’ theory of social action is influenced by which of the following theorists?
A) Karl Marx
B) Émile Durkheim
C) George Herbert Mead
D) Sigmund Freud
4. The ‘pattern variables’ introduced by Parsons are associated with which of the following concepts?
A) Social Change
B) Social Action
C) Social Stratification
D) Social Integration
5. Talcott Parsons’ work on modernization focuses primarily on:
A) The role of religion
B) The transition from traditional to industrial societies
C) The impact of colonialism
D) The nature of social deviance
6. Which of the following is NOT a function of the social system according to Parsons?
A) Adaptation
B) Goal Attainment
C) Legitimation
D) Latency
7. Talcott Parsons’ concept of ‘latent functions’ was introduced in which work?
A) The Structure of Social Action
B) Social System and Personality
C) Essays in Sociological Theory
D) Toward a General Theory of Action
8. In Parsons’ theory, ‘integration’ refers to:
A) The process of creating new social institutions
B) The coordination of different parts of the social system
C) The breaking down of social norms
D) The development of individual personality
9. Which concept is central to Parsons’ view of social order and stability?
A) Social Conflict
B) Social Action
C) Social Evolution
D) Social Integration
10. Talcott Parsons’ approach to social systems emphasizes:
A) The role of economic factors
B) The maintenance of societal balance
C) The impact of political power
D) The influence of individual behavior
11. The concept of ‘roleset’ in Parsons’ theory refers to:
A) The set of expectations associated with a single role
B) The variety of roles an individual plays in different contexts
C) The hierarchy of roles within a society
D) The set of societal norms governing behavior
12. Which of the following best describes Parsons’ view of social institutions?
A) Institutions as sources of conflict
B) Institutions as mechanisms for social change
C) Institutions as functional components of social systems
D) Institutions as barriers to individual freedom
13. Parsons’ theory of social action is primarily concerned with:
A) Economic structures
B) Cultural norms and values
C) Political institutions
D) Biological imperatives
14. In Parsons’ AGIL framework, ‘Latency’ refers to:
A) The adaptation to external environments
B) The integration of societal parts
C) The maintenance of cultural patterns and norms
D) The achievement of societal goals
15. The ‘cultural system’ in Parsons’ theory refers to:
A) The physical environment in which society operates
B) The interaction patterns among individuals
C) The values, norms, and symbols guiding social behavior
D) The political and legal structures of society
16. Which work by Parsons discusses the functional aspects of religion in society?
A) The Sociology of Religion
B) The Structure of Social Action
C) Social Structure and Personality
D) Essays in Sociological Theory
17. The term ‘socialization’ in Parsons’ theory is associated with:
A) The process of economic development
B) The transmission of cultural values and norms
C) The establishment of political institutions
D) The resolution of social conflicts
18. In Parsons’ view, which of the following is a primary function of the family?
A) Economic production
B) Socialization of children
C) Political socialization
D) Legal enforcement
19. Talcott Parsons’ concept of ‘social system’ is most closely related to which of the following?
A) Conflict Theory
B) Symbolic Interactionism
C) Structural Functionalism
D) Critical Theory
20. Which of the following best describes Parsons’ view on societal evolution?
A) Societal evolution is driven by class struggle
B) Societal evolution involves increasing differentiation and complexity
C) Societal evolution is a result of individual actions
D) Societal evolution occurs through revolutionary changes
Answers:
1. D
2. A
3. B
4. B
5. B
6. C
7. A
8. B
9. D
10. B
11. B
12. C
13. B
14. C
15. C
16. A
17. B
18. B
19. C
20. B