2. Role Theory

 

It focuses on the social roles, which are the expectations and norms associated with the social positions. Merton’s theory  connects to G.H. Mead’s work in which Mead discuss the development of self through role taking in his book “Mind, Self and Society (1934)”.

 

Under Role theory, Merton gave 3 concepts :

1. Role Set – The set of roles associated with a particular status.

For example, a politician (status) have certain roles to perform like interacting with people, elections, speech etc.

 

2. Role Strain – The stress experienced when there is a conflict between two act in a single role. 

For example, politicians wants to suppress the protest but also wants to uphold the fundamental rights.

 

3. Role Conflict – when an individual perform more than one roles and conflict arises between two roles. 

For example, a working mother could not able to provide much time to children. She has to manage the occupational role as well as role of a mother. 

 

3. Manifest and Latent functions

 

Merton in his book ‘ Social theory and social structure (1949)’, introduced the concept of Manifest and Latent functions. It further build the functionalist idea from earlier sociologist like A.R. Redcliff Brown and B. Malinowski who focused on the functions of social institutions.

 

Manifest Functions – these are the functions which are obvious and visible primarily. For example – In school, the manifest function of school is to educate students.

 

Latent Functions – 

These are the functions which are non-obvious, hidden and invisible.

For example, a school may develop social network among students.

 

Merton used this concept to analyse the social institutions, argues that both manifest and latent functions contribute to social stability and change.

 

4. Anomie

 

Merton further build up the concept given by Emile Durkheim’s concept of ‘Anomie’, originally introduced into his work ‘Suicide (1897)’ which refers to normlessness or failure of social norms. 

 

Whereas, Merton said Anomie occurs when there is a disjunction between culturally prescribed goals and availability of legitimate means to achieve them. This disjunctions can create Anomie or an individual pushed towards deviant behavior.

5. Self- Fulfilling Prophecy

 

1. Merton wrote an article titled “ The self fulfilling Prophecy” (1948). This concept was influenced by theories such as “labeling theory” and “Thomas theorem”, which states that if people define situation as real, they are real in their consequences.

A self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when a false belief or prediction influences behavior in such a way that the belief becomes true.

For example, a boy thinks that how can a human swim in water, if he do the same, he will drown. 

He ultimately never abled to swim.

6. Reference Group 

 

Hyman in his book “The psychology of status”(1942) first discussed about Reference Group. Later, Merton expanded it. 

 What is reference group ?

 

These are the groups which are look upto as a standard and idol from whom an individual gets influenced in identity, attitude and behaviour. It helps to evaluate an individual’s own behavior and attitude.

 

Merton differentiate between 

 

1. Normative Reference Group –

This group provides an individual norms and values to be followed.

 

2. Comparative reference group –

This group is set as benchmark for an individual’s self evaluation.

 7. Middle Range Theory

 

As the name suggest, MRT is a methodological approach which is neither too abstract or grand theory nor too specific. In other words neither micro nor macro. It is middle one. Middle-range theories focus on specific aspects of society, such as social mobility or deviance, and aim to bridge the gap between empirical data and general sociological theory.

8. Social Structure and Anomie

 

In his work ‘Social structure and anomie’ (1938), Merton argued that structure of society can pressurise an individual to do deviant act.  When there is disparity is or mismatch between set goals and suggested means. An individual may turn towards deviance as a solution.

 

This theory is foundational in criminology and sociology and it influenced many scholarship like Albert Cohen and his work on delinquent subcultures.

 

9 . Paradigm of Functional Analysis

 

In this theory, Merton argues that sociologist need to look functional as well as dysfunctional aspects of social practices and institutions.

Sociologists should also consider Functions, dysfunction (negative functions), non functions (irrelevant function) and latent functions. 

 

10. Matthew Effect

 

Matthew effect name brought in from the verse in the Gospel of Matthew, which describe the phenomena i.e. ‘Rich become richer and poor become poorer’.

 

Merton in his paper ‘The Matthew effect in Science’ (1968), talked about scientist community and said that already famous scientist receive more suport and funds as compare to lesser known scientists even for similar work. 

 

11. The Sociology of Science

 

Merton was a pioneer in the sociology of science, studying the social processes and norms that govern scientific inquiry.

 He identified a set of norms, known as the Mertonian norms (CUDOS):

 

Communism: Scientific knowledge should be shared, made public and accessible to all, a concept reminiscent of Karl Popper’s ideas in “The Open Society and Its Enemies” (1945).

 

Universalism: Scientific claims should be evaluated based on objective criteria, it should not biased, reflecting earlier ideals from the Enlightenment.

 

Disinterestedness: Scientists should act for the benefit of the common scientific development, rather than for personal gain.

 

Organised Skepticism: Scientific claims should be evaluated and tested before being accepted, echoing the skepticism (संदेहवाद) emphasized by philosophers like David Hume.

 

Merton’s work in this area laid the groundwork for understanding the social structures that influence scientific research and knowledge production, influencing later scholars such as Thomas Kuhn, author of “The Structure of Scientific Revolutions” (1962).

 

12. Functional Alternatives

 

Merton introduced the idea of functional alternatives (also known as functional equivalents), which refers to different social structures or practices that can fulfill the same functions in society. Or simply we can say replace the social structure. This concept is important in understanding that there is not just one way to achieve social stability, but multiple possible solutions to societal needs. This idea aligns with the comparative method used by earlier anthropologists like Malinowski in “Argonauts of the Western Pacific” (1922). 

 

13. Serendipity

 

In his book, “The travels and adventures of serendipity ” co-authored with Elinor Barber.  Merton explored this idea as a significant factor in scientific discovery where an unexpected findings can lead to important new knowledge.

 

Critics of R. K. Merton

 

1. C. Wright Mills – He argued that Merton’s Middle Range Theory is too narrow and avoid the broader issues like power, politics and social change which would be in centre of the sociological inquiries according to Mills.

Sociological imagination – Mills gave a theory where an individual connects himself to the broader issues through sociological imagination.

 

2. Alvin Gouldner – in his book ‘The coming crisis of western sociology’ (1970), Gouldner criticised the functionalism and Merton’s conservative bias. He argued that Merton’s work was focused on status quo and it did not adequately represent the social change, conflict and working of power dynamics.

 

3. Lewis Coser – He is a conflict theorist, he also criticise Merton for neglecting social conflict.

 

4. Zygmunt Bauman –  He cricised Merton’s concept of anomie and his interpretation of social order. He said Merton’s focus was on structural causes of deviance and not on individual agency. Whereas Zygmunt focus on dynamic and static nature of modern society.

 

5. A. R. Desai – critised Merton and other Western theories for their lack of applicability to India context. He also criticised him for neglecting conflict in society and inequalities in the society. Desai being Marxist focused on structural issues of class and power. 

 

6. Yogendra Singh – He criticised Merton and other Western theories for their lack of applicability to India context, particularly his functionalism and middle range theory. Singh emphasised on developing indigenous sociological theories backed with specific historical and cultural context. 

Sociologists who followed and expanded upon R. K. Merton’s theories.

 

1. Peter Blau – Blau further extended Merton’s theories specially in the area of social exchange and organisational sociology in his book ‘Exchange and power in social life’ (1964).

 

2. Kingsley Davis and Wilbert E Moore – in their article ‘Some principles of stratification ‘ they used functionalism. They said that social stratification is present to serve a necessary function.

 

3. Albert K. Cohen – Cohen was a student of Merton, he expanded Merton’s strain theory in his own theory of subcultural deviance in his book ‘Delinquent Boys: the culture of the gang’ (1955).

He said that working class boys unable to achieve success through prescribed means, so they indulge in deviant means.

 

4. Erving Goffman – in his book ‘The presentation of self in everyday life ‘ (1959) he emphasised on everyday role playing which can be seen as extension of role theory.  Ralph Linton also worked on role and status in his book ‘the study of man’ (1936).

 

5. Jeffrey C. Alexander – he advocated for the use of middle range theory. His work on cultural trauma and collective identity can be seen as extension of methodological approach of Merton.

 

6. Travis Hirschi – Merton had impact in criminology as well. Travis known for social control theory explored in his book ‘Causes of Delinquency ‘. 

 

7. Yogendra Singh – His work on modernization and social change in India reflects an engagement with Middle range theory.

 

 Books and publication

 

1. Social theory and social structure 1949 – in this he introduced concepts like strain theory, the self fulfilling prophecy, and latent and manifest function.

 

2. The sociology of science: theoretical and empirical investigation 1973 – includes workon the matthew effect and mertonian norms (CUDOS) in science.

 

3. On theoretical sociology (1967)

 

4. On social structure and science (1996)

 

5. The travels and adventures of serendipity: a study in sociological semantics and the sociology of science (2004)  – it was published posthumously.

 

6. Science, technology and society in 17th century England. (1938)

 

7. Sociology of Knowledge (1957)

 

8. The focused interview – on qualitative research

 

9. The self fulfilling prophecy 1948

 

10. Social structure and anomie 1938

 

11. The Matthew effect in science 1968

 

12. Bureaucratic structure and personality 1940

 

13. Manifest and latent functions 1949

 

Case studies

 

14. The case of the Hawthorne studies

 

15. Pattern of influence 1955

 

16. The contributions of mass communication to political socialisation 1959

 

17. Reader in bureaucracy 1952

 

18. Continuities in social research: Studies in the scope and method of ‘the American soldier’ (1950).

 

UGC NET PYQ

 

Here are 20 past year questions related to R.K. Merton that have been asked in UGC NET and other state exams:

 

1. Which of the following concepts is associated with R.K. Merton?

   – A) Social Structure

   – B) Social Action

   – C) Manifest and Latent Functions

   – D) Social Facts

 

2. R.K. Merton’s concept of ‘anomie’ is most closely associated with which of the following theorists?

   – A) Émile Durkheim

   – B) Max Weber

   – C) Karl Marx

   – D) Talcott Parsons

 

3. R.K. Merton introduced the term ‘self-fulfilling prophecy.’ What does this concept imply?

   – A) A prediction that causes itself to become true

   – B) A prediction that does not come true

   – C) A belief that changes over time

   – D) A prophecy that is fulfilled in the future

 

4. Which of the following best describes R.K. Merton’s typology of deviance?

   – A) Ritualism, Innovation, Conformity, Retreatism, Rebellion

   – B) Conformity, Retreatism, Rebellion, Ritualism, Innovation

   – C) Innovation, Conformity, Ritualism, Retreatism, Rebellion

   – D) Conformity, Innovation, Ritualism, Retreatism, Rebellion

 

5. Merton’s concept of ‘strain theory’ primarily addresses which of the following?

   – A) Economic inequality

   – B) Social cohesion

   – C) Deviance

   – D) Power dynamics

 

6. Which of the following is NOT one of Merton’s modes of individual adaptation to strain?

   – A) Conformity

   – B) Innovation

   – C) Rebellion

   – D) Interactionism

 

7. R.K. Merton is known for his theory of ‘middle-range theories.’ What does this term refer to?

   – A) Theories that are too abstract to be tested

   – B) Theories that are intermediate to grand theories and empirical observations

   – C) Theories that cover only a specific social phenomenon

   – D) Theories that are outdated

 

8. According to Merton, what is the function of a social institution?

   – A) To maintain power structures

   – B) To fulfill the basic needs of society

   – C) To impose sanctions on individuals

   – D) To create social change

 

9. Merton’s concept of ‘reference groups’ is used to explain which of the following?

   – A) Group dynamics in small communities

   – B) How individuals evaluate their own behavior and beliefs

   – C) The influence of peers on individual behavior

   – D) Social roles within a family

 

10. Which of the following is an example of a manifest function, according to Merton?

    – A) Education providing knowledge and skills

    – B) Education leading to social inequality

    – C) Media spreading propaganda

    – D) Religion causing social division

 

11. What is the difference between ‘manifest’ and ‘latent’ functions as proposed by Merton?

    – A) Manifest functions are intended, latent functions are unintended

    – B) Manifest functions are positive, latent functions are negative

    – C) Manifest functions are conscious, latent functions are unconscious

    – D) Manifest functions are public, latent functions are private

 

12. R.K. Merton’s analysis of social structure focuses on:

    – A) The conflict between different social classes

    – B) The functions and dysfunctions of social institutions

    – C) The evolution of society over time

    – D) The role of power in social interactions

 

13. According to Merton, which of the following best explains the emergence of deviant behavior?

    – A) Inadequate socialization

    – B) Cultural conflict

    – C) Structural strain

    – D) Peer pressure

 

14. Which of the following concepts did R.K. Merton introduce to describe unforeseen consequences of social actions?

    – A) Latent dysfunctions

    – B) Structural strain

    – C) Social mobility

    – D) Bureaucratic ritualism

 

15. In Merton’s strain theory, which mode of adaptation rejects both cultural goals and the institutionalized means of achieving them?

    – A) Conformity

    – B) Innovation

    – C) Retreatism

    – D) Rebellion

 

16. Merton’s idea of ‘anticipatory socialization’ refers to:

    – A) Learning the norms of a future role

    – B) Adjusting to a new social environment

    – C) Predicting social change

    – D) Adapting to social roles in adolescence

 

17. Which of the following is a critique of Merton’s strain theory?

    – A) It overemphasizes cultural goals

    – B) It ignores the role of power in society

    – C) It does not consider the role of socialization

    – D) It underestimates the influence of economic factors

 

18. Merton’s concept of ‘role set’ refers to:

    – A) The various roles associated with a particular status

    – B) The conflict between different roles

    – C) The expectations tied to a specific role

    – D) The hierarchy of roles in society

 

19. What does Merton mean by ‘dysfunctions’ in social institutions?

    – A) Positive outcomes of social behavior

    – B) Negative consequences that disrupt society

    – C) The inability of an institution to function

    – D) Structural problems within an institution

 

20. Which of the following is an example of a ‘self-fulfilling prophecy’ in Merton’s theory?

    – A) A teacher expecting a student to fail, leading to the student’s failure

    – B) A society expecting economic growth, leading to policies that stimulate growth

    – C) A politician predicting social unrest, leading to preventive measures

    – D) A scientist predicting climate change, leading to global awareness

 

 Answers:

1. C) Manifest and Latent Functions

2. A) Émile Durkheim

3. A) A prediction that causes itself to become true

4. D) Conformity, Innovation, Ritualism, Retreatism, Rebellion

5. C) Deviance

6. D) Interactionism

7. B) Theories that are intermediate to grand theories and empirical observations

8. B) To fulfill the basic needs of society

9. B) How individuals evaluate their own behavior and beliefs

10. A) Education providing knowledge and skills

11. A) Manifest functions are intended, latent functions are unintended

12. B) The functions and dysfunctions of social institutions

13. C) Structural strain

14. A) Latent dysfunctions

15. C) Retreatism

16. A) Learning the norms of a future role

17. A) It overemphasizes cultural goals

18. A) The various roles associated with a particular status

19. B) Negative consequences that disrupt society

20. A) A teacher expecting a student to fail, leading to the student’s failure

 

These questions and answers should help you in your preparation for the UGC NET and other sociology-related exams.