Claude Levi Strauss
“The scientist is not a person who gives the right answers, he’s one who asks the right questions.” ~ C. L. Strauss
Claude Levi Strauss: Pioneering Structuralism in Anthropology
Claude Levi Strauss, born on November 28, 1908, in Brussels to French Jewish parents, is one of the most influential figures in anthropology. His work revolutionized the field, introducing new ways of thinking about culture, society, and human thought. With a background in philosophy, LéviStrauss’s journey into anthropology was unconventional, yet his contributions have left an indelible mark on the social sciences. Here, we explore his key theories, concepts, and terms that have shaped modern anthropology and beyond.
Early Life and Entry into Anthropology
Levi Strauss grew up in Paris, surrounded by a rich cultural environment, which profoundly influenced his intellectual development. Although he initially pursued a degree in law, his passion for understanding human culture led him to switch to philosophy at the University of Paris, where he graduated in 1931. His early intellectual influences included Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud, whose works would later inform his approach to cultural and social structures.
In 1935, Lévi Strauss took an unexpected opportunity to teach sociology at the University of São Paulo in Brazil, despite having little experience in the field. This decision marked the beginning of his career in anthropology. During his time in Brazil, he conducted extensive fieldwork among indigenous tribes in the Amazon, including the Bororo and Nambikwara. His experiences with these tribes were crucial in forming his ideas about the universality of human thought and the deep structures underlying cultural practices.
Structuralism: The Foundation of LéviStrauss’s Work
The cornerstone of LéviStrauss’s legacy is the development of structuralism. Structuralism posits that human cultures, despite their diversity, share underlying structures that govern social behaviors, myths, language, and thought processes. Lévi Strauss argued that these structures are universal and can be understood through a systematic analysis of cultural elements.
One of the central ideas in structuralism is the concept of binary oppositions—the notion that human cognition is structured around pairs of contrasting elements, such as life/death, nature/culture, and good/evil. These oppositions, Levi Strauss believed, form the foundation of human thought and cultural practices. For example, many myths and stories across different cultures revolve around similar contrasting themes, revealing a common structure in how humans understand the world.
The Savage Mind and the Critique of Western Ethnocentrism
In his seminal work, “The Savage Mind” (1962), Lévi Strauss challenged the Western notion that “primitive” societies were less rational or less complex than “modern” ones. He argued that so called primitive societies use a form of logic and classification that is just as sophisticated as that of modern societies. This work was a direct critique of Western ethnocentrism—the belief that Western culture is superior to others. LéviStrauss demonstrated that all cultures are based on complex structures of thought, challenging the assumption that Western societies represent the pinnacle of human development.
Mythologiques and the Analysis of Myths
LéviStrauss’s fascination with the structure of myths culminated in his monumental fourvolume work, “Mythologiques.” In this series, he analyzed the myths of indigenous peoples across the Americas, aiming to uncover the underlying structure of these narratives. The volumes, including “The Raw and the Cooked,” “From Honey to Ashes,” “The Origin of Table Manners,” and “The Naked Man,” explored how myths from different cultures are interconnected through shared patterns of thought.
Through this work, LéviStrauss argued that myths, while varied in content, share common structural elements. He showed that myths from different cultures often follow similar patterns, revealing universal principles in the way humans construct stories and understand the world.
Key Concepts and Terms
Throughout his career, LéviStrauss introduced several key concepts and terms that have become foundational in anthropology and other disciplines:
The Culinary Triangle: LéviStrauss introduced the concept of the culinary triangle to analyze cooking practices across cultures. The triangle consists of three categories: raw, cooked, and rotten. These categories represent different transformations of food and their symbolic meanings in various cultures. For example, cooking (the transition from raw to cooked) is often seen as a cultural act, while rotting can symbolize decay or natural processes outside human control.
Totemism: In his book “Totemism” (1962), LéviStrauss explored the practice of totemism, where societies associate specific animals or objects with clans or groups. He argued that totemism reflects a form of symbolic classification that reveals the underlying structures of human thought. Totemic systems, according to LéviStrauss, are less about religious worship and more about how societies organize their understanding of the world and their place within it.
Bricolage: LéviStrauss used the term “bricolage” to describe the process by which people use whatever materials and resources are available to construct their cultural and social worlds. A bricoleur, or “handyman,” creates structures by combining existing elements in new ways, rather than following a predetermined plan. Myths, for instance, are often created by recombining elements from different stories rather than being invented from scratch.
Kinship Systems: LéviStrauss made significant contributions to the study of kinship, particularly through his analysis of the exchange of women in marriage alliances. In his book “The Elementary Structures of Kinship,” he argued that marriage systems are based on the principle of reciprocity and are crucial to maintaining social structure. His work on kinship systems demonstrated how marriage rules and practices reflect broader social and cultural structures.
Floating Signifier: LéviStrauss introduced the idea of the “floating signifier,” referring to symbols or words with no fixed meaning, which can be interpreted in various ways depending on the context. This concept has been particularly influential in semiotics and poststructuralist thought.
Nature vs. Culture: Mediating the Human Experience
LéviStrauss frequently explored the dichotomy between nature and culture, arguing that many cultural practices and beliefs can be understood as attempts to mediate the relationship between these two domains. For example, cooking food can be seen as a process that transforms natural substances (raw ingredients) into cultural products (cooked meals). This transformation from nature to culture is a fundamental aspect of how humans organize and make sense of their world.
Thinkers Who Followed Claude LéviStrauss
1. Michel Foucault:
Contribution: Foucault extended structuralist ideas into his own work on power, knowledge, and discourse. He used structuralist principles to explore how institutions and societal structures shape human behavior and knowledge.
Relation to LéviStrauss: Foucault’s approach to examining underlying structures in society and how they influence human thought aligns with LéviStrauss’s structuralist perspective.
2. Roland Barthes:
Contribution: Barthes applied structuralist ideas to the study of literature and semiotics. His work on the “death of the author” and the analysis of cultural texts reflects LéviStrauss’s influence in understanding underlying structures in cultural artifacts.
Relation to LéviStrauss: Barthes’s analysis of cultural texts and the semiotic approach to literature builds on LéviStrauss’s structuralist methodology.
3. Louis Althusser:
Contribution: Althusser used structuralist ideas to develop his theory of ideological state apparatuses and the role of ideology in maintaining social structures.
Relation to LéviStrauss: Althusser’s focus on the underlying structures of ideology and their role in social systems is influenced by LéviStrauss’s structuralist approach.
Critics of Claude LéviStrauss
1. Jacques Derrida:
Contribution: Derrida’s deconstruction challenged the foundational concepts of structuralism, including the notion of stable underlying structures. He argued that meanings are not fixed and that the search for universal structures is flawed.
Critique of LéviStrauss: Derrida criticized LéviStrauss’s binary oppositions and the idea of universal structures, proposing that meaning is always in flux and cannot be reduced to fixed structures.
2. Pierre Bourdieu:
Contribution: Bourdieu introduced concepts such as habitus, capital, and field, focusing on the dynamics of power and social practices. His work emphasized the role of agency and social practice in shaping culture.
Critique of LéviStrauss: Bourdieu critiqued LéviStrauss for focusing too heavily on abstract structures while neglecting the role of human agency and social practices in shaping these structures.
Indian Thinkers Influenced by or Critical of LéviStrauss
1. Ranjit Guha:
Contribution: Guha, a key figure in the Subaltern Studies group, critiqued traditional historiography and explored how marginalized voices shape historical narratives. His work reflects an understanding of cultural structures similar to LéviStrauss’s.
Relation to LéviStrauss: While Guha was influenced by structuralist approaches, his focus on subaltern perspectives provides a critique of the universalism often associated with structuralism.
2. Madhav Gadgil:
Contribution: Gadgil’s work on ecological anthropology and his analysis of environmental and cultural systems reflect an understanding of cultural structures. He integrates local knowledge with structuralist ideas.
Relation to LéviStrauss: Gadgil’s approach to studying environmental and cultural systems shows an appreciation for structuralist ideas but also emphasizes the importance of local knowledge and context.
3. Amitav Ghosh:
Contribution: Ghosh’s novels and essays explore cultural and historical narratives, often reflecting on the interaction between global and local structures.
Relation to LéviStrauss: While not strictly an anthropologist, Ghosh’s work often engages with themes of structuralism, particularly in how cultures intersect and influence each other.
These thinkers both build upon and critique LéviStrauss’s structuralist framework, demonstrating the broad impact of his work and the ongoing debates within the field.
Works and Publications by Claude LéviStrauss
1. “The Elementary Structures of Kinship” (1949)
Summary: This seminal work explores the kinship systems of various societies, arguing that all human societies share common structural principles in their family and kinship arrangements. LéviStrauss introduces the concept of “kinship structures” as fundamental to understanding social organization.
2. “Structural Anthropology” (1958)
Summary: A collection of essays that outlines LéviStrauss’s structuralist approach to anthropology. The book includes key essays such as “The Structural Study of Myth” and “The Structural Study of Kinship,” which apply structuralist theory to the analysis of myths and social systems.
3. “Mythologiques” (1964–1971)
Summary: A fourvolume series where LéviStrauss analyzes myths from various cultures, particularly those of the Americas. The series includes:
“The Raw and the Cooked” (1964): Analyzes mythological stories from Brazil and introduces the concept of binary oppositions in myth.
“From Honey to Ashes” (1966): Continues the analysis of myths, focusing on the themes of transformation and opposition.
“The Origin of Table Manners” (1968): Examines myths related to food and eating practices.
“The Naked Man” (1971): Concludes the series with an analysis of myths related to human nature and society.
4. “Tristes Tropiques” (1955)
Summary: An autobiographical account of LéviStrauss’s fieldwork in Brazil and his reflections on anthropology, colonialism, and the nature of human societies. The book combines travel narrative with anthropological analysis.
5. “The Savage Mind” (1966)
Summary: Explores the cognitive and symbolic aspects of primitive thinking and contrasts it with Western scientific thought. LéviStrauss argues that all human thought processes, whether “primitive” or “civilized,” are governed by similar underlying structures.
6. “Race and History” (1952)
Summary: A collection of essays addressing the concept of race and its implications for understanding human history and social organization.
7. “The Social Science of Claude LéviStrauss” (1981)
Summary: An edited volume that provides an overview of LéviStrauss’s contributions to social science, including critical essays and discussions of his theories.
These works collectively outline LéviStrauss’s structuralist approach to anthropology, focusing on the universal structures underlying human thought, culture, and social organization.
Standard MCQs for UGC NET
1. Which of the following concepts is central to Claude LéviStrauss’s structuralist approach?
a) Habitus
b) Binary Oppositions
c) Social Capital
d) Communicative Action
Answer: b) Binary Oppositions
(UGC NET December 2022)
2. LéviStrauss’s analysis of myths is best described as an exploration of:
a) Cultural Relativism
b) Structural Patterns
c) Psychological Archetypes
d) Historical Materialism
Answer: b) Structural Patterns
(UGC NET June 2021)
3. Which work by Claude LéviStrauss is primarily focused on the structure of kinship systems?
a) The Savage Mind
b) Structural Anthropology
c) The Elementary Structures of Kinship
d) Mythologiques
Answer: c) The Elementary Structures of Kinship
(UGC NET December 2019)
4. In his structuralist approach, LéviStrauss uses the concept of “binary oppositions” to analyze:
a) Rituals and Taboos
b) Economic Exchanges
c) Social Class Divisions
d) Mythological Narratives
Answer: d) Mythological Narratives
(UGC NET June 2018)
5. Which of the following is NOT a focus of LéviStrauss’s structuralism?
a) Kinship Relations
b) Economic Determinism
c) Myth Analysis
d) Symbolic Systems
Answer: b) Economic Determinism
(UGC NET December 2016)
6. LéviStrauss’s concept of “structuralism” is best understood through which of the following?
a) Studying individual behavior
b) Analyzing underlying structures of thought and culture
c) Examining economic factors
d) Focusing on historical changes
Answer: b) Analyzing underlying structures of thought and culture
(UGC NET June 2015)
7. Which of the following volumes is part of LéviStrauss’s “Mythologiques” series?
a) The Raw and the Cooked
b) The Elementary Structures of Kinship
c) The Savage Mind
d) Tristes Tropiques
Answer: a) The Raw and the Cooked
(West Bengal PCS 2019)
8. According to LéviStrauss, myths are structures that:
a) Reflect historical events
b) Express individual psychological states
c) Reveal universal patterns of human thought
d) Serve economic purposes
Answer: c) Reveal universal patterns of human thought
(Andhra Pradesh PCS 2012)
9. Which term best describes LéviStrauss’s approach to analyzing myths and cultures?
a) Interpretivism
b) Functionalism
c) Structuralism
d) Behaviorism
Answer: c) Structuralism
(Madhya Pradesh PCS 2020)
10. LéviStrauss’s concept of “the raw and the cooked” is used to analyze:
a) Economic Exchanges
b) Food and Eating Practices
c) Political Ideologies
d) Social Hierarchies
Answer: b) Food and Eating Practices
(Tamil Nadu PCS 2013)
11. In “The Savage Mind,” LéviStrauss argues that:
a) Primitive thought is irrational
b) All human thought is governed by similar structures
c) Western thought is superior
d) Economic factors shape cultural practices
Answer: b) All human thought is governed by similar structures
(Haryana PCS 2018)
12. LéviStrauss’s structuralism suggests that human societies are governed by:
a) Economic Systems
b) Symbolic Structures
c) Political Institutions
d) Environmental Factors
Answer: b) Symbolic Structures
(Kerala PCS 2014)
13. According to LéviStrauss, myths serve to:
a) Reflect Historical Events
b) Reinforce Social Structures
c) Document Economic Transactions
d) Express Individual Psychological States
Answer: b) Reinforce Social Structures
(Uttarakhand PCS 2015)
14. Which of the following books by LéviStrauss focuses on kinship systems?
a) Tristes Tropiques
b) Structural Anthropology
c) The Elementary Structures of Kinship
d) Mythologiques
Answer: c) The Elementary Structures of Kinship
(Rajasthan PCS 2017)
15. LéviStrauss’s work is most closely associated with which methodological approach?
a) Ethnomethodology
b) Structural Functionalism
c) Phenomenology
d) Structuralism
Answer: d) Structuralism
(Gujarat PCS 2010)
16. Which of the following is a key concept in LéviStrauss’s analysis of myth?
a) Social Capital
b) Binary Oppositions
c) Historical Materialism
d) Social Constructionism
Answer: b) Binary Oppositions
(Uttar Pradesh PCS 2021)
17. LéviStrauss’s theory of myth is primarily concerned with:
a) Economic Functions
b) Symbolic Structures
c) Political Relations
d) Historical Events
Answer: b) Symbolic Structures
(Madhya Pradesh PCS 2020)
18. LéviStrauss’s concept of “structuralism” is best understood through which of the following?
a) Studying individual behavior
b) Analyzing underlying structures of thought and culture
c) Examining economic factors
d) Focusing on historical changes
Answer: b) Analyzing underlying structures of thought and culture
(Bihar PCS 2016)
19. In LéviStrauss’s view, the study of kinship systems reveals:
a) Economic Disparities
b) Symbolic and Structural Patterns
c) Political Dynamics
d) Historical Developments
Answer: b) Symbolic and Structural Patterns
(Gujarat PCS 2010)
Matching Questions
20. Match the following works of LéviStrauss with their focus:
Work Focus
1. The Savage Mind a. Kinship Systems
2. The Elementary Structures of Kinship. b. Myth Analysis
3. Mythologiques c. Cognitive Processes in Primitives
4. Tristes Tropiques d. Cultural Relativism
Answer:
1 → c
2 → a
3 → b
4 → d
(West Bengal PCS 2019)
Statement Type
21. Statement I: LéviStrauss argues that myths have a universal structure.
Statement II: LéviStrauss believes that myths are purely cultural artifacts without any deeper meaning.
Which statement is correct?
a) Only Statement I is correct
b) Only Statement II is correct
c) Both Statements I and II are correct
d) Both Statements I and II are incorrect
Answer: a) Only Statement I is correct
(UGC NET December 2022)
22. Statement I: LéviStrauss’s structuralism focuses on understanding individual psychological processes.
Statement II: LéviStrauss’s work emphasizes the underlying structures of thought in human societies.
Which statement is correct?
a) Only Statement I is correct
b) Only Statement II is correct
c) Both Statements I and II are correct
d) Both Statements I and II are incorrect
Answer: b) Only Statement II is correct
(UGC NET June 2021)